Micronutrients

As discussed in chapters 4 and 5 of the Book: Change Your Diet Change Your Mind by Georgia Ede , micronutrients are indispensable to the building and burning pathways that make up the miracle of brain metabolism. The goal of this resource is to bring this list of players to life by describing the fascinating tasks each nutrient performs, paying special attention to the contributions each one makes to maintaining mental health.

Try not to think of this as a list of supplements—these are essential ingredients we are supposed to be able to obtain from our diets. We are best adapted to absorbing, utilizing, and achieving proper balance of these nutrients when we consume them in whole foods, not as isolated, concentrated extracts.

Vitamin A (Retinol and related compounds)

True vitamin A compounds (not to be confused with beta-carotene and similar compounds found in carrots and certain other colorful plant foods) belong to a family of fat-soluble hormones best known for their role in eye health, specifically for making both night vision and color perception possible. Less commonly known is that vitamin A influences the genes involved in the growth and development of all cells, and therefore is crucial to the development and maintenance of the entire brain.

Learning and memory also rely heavily on vitamin A to help connect neurons in new patterns to solidify knowledge. Vitamin A deficiency in early life increases the risk for autism, and problems with vitamin A signaling may play a role in the development of schizophrenia. Vitamin A signaling can decline with age, contributing to cognitive deficits later in life.

Source Code:

• Preformed vitamin A (retinol): liver (beef, lamb, poultry, cod); fish liver oils; egg yolks; vitamin A–containing dairy (whole milk, butter, cream, cheese as consumed in traditional diets); fatty fish (herring, mackerel, salmon, sardines).
• Provitamin A carotenoids (β-carotene and related): convert to vitamin A with variable efficiency—sweet potato; carrot; pumpkin; winter squash; dark leafy greens (kale, spinach, collards); red peppers; mango; apricot; cantaloupe (whole fruit, not juice-only patterns).

The Busy B’s

Even though they look nothing alike and have unique responsibilities, the B vitamins are often lumped together and referred to as “B complex,” because they all serve as coenzymes (enzyme assistants) that help cells extract energy from food and assemble vital molecules, so they are indispensable to multiple burning and building pathways.

We must consume foods rich in B vitamins regularly because most of them can’t be stored in our tissues, with the notable exception of vitamin B12, which we store in the liver. Since the brain is a high-energy organ, even brief deficiency of a single member of the B vitamin family can slow the brain’s machinery and lead to vague, nonspecific psychiatric symptoms, such as fatigue, apathy, or insomnia.

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Vitamin B1 helps make and break the bonds that hold molecules together. It plays essential roles in both glycolysis (Engine G) and the citric acid cycle (part of Engine M), and connects the two pathways by converting pyruvate to acetyl CoA. It also helps the pentose phosphate pathway to make DNA and RNA, and assists in the construction of the neurotransmitters acetylcholine, glutamate, and GABA. Since glucose processing requires thiamine, diets high in carbohydrate increase thiamine requirements. Deficiency remains widespread in parts of the world that rely heavily on starchy staples like rice and have poor access to thiamine-rich protein sources.

Source Code:

• Pork (loin, ham); beef and lamb muscle meat; poultry; fish (especially tuna, salmon); whole-grain and enriched cereals and breads; legumes (black beans, navy beans, lentils); nuts and seeds (sunflower seeds, macadamia); peas and soy foods.

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Vitamin B2 is an integral part of FAD, which carries electrons to the electron transport chain. Riboflavin helps build antioxidants and synthesize vitamin B3, and is also required to activate vitamins B6 and B9.

Source Code:

• Organ meats (liver, kidney); dairy milk and yogurt; eggs; lean beef; mushrooms (portobello, white button); almonds; spinach; whole grains; poultry (dark meat somewhat richer than white).

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

Vitamin B3 is an integral part of NAD, which is used by hundreds of enzymes to help transfer electrons between molecules. Severe, advanced niacin deficiency causes pellagra, a disease which can lead to depression, psychosis, delirium, and dementia.

Source Code:

• Poultry (chicken, turkey); beef; pork; fish (tuna, salmon); peanuts and peanut butter; mushrooms (portobello, crimini); whole grains; legumes; potatoes; fortified/enriched grains where culturally used; seeds (sesame, sunflower).

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)

Vitamin B5 is an integral part of CoA (coenzyme A), which changes the shape of large molecules to help them undergo chemical reactions more easily. Vitamin B5 participates widely in metabolism but is particularly important to the assembly of components needed for growth and is required to activate folate (vitamin B9).

Source Code:

• Animal foods across the board (beef, poultry, pork, organ meats, eggs, fish); whole grains; shiitake and other mushrooms; avocado; sweet potato; broccoli; sunflower seeds; peanuts; dairy milk and yogurt.

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Vitamin B6 is used by dozens of enzymes to help transfer carbon building blocks between molecules. Vitamin B6 is required for gluconeogenesis, amino acid processing, and to make vitamin B3, DNA, RNA, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and GABA.

Source Code:

• Chickpeas and other legumes; fish (tuna, salmon); poultry; potatoes (starchy); bananas; organ meats; lean beef; fortified cereals where used; nuts (pistachio); whole grains; sunflower seeds; dark leafy greens.

Vitamin B7 (Biotin)

Vitamin B7 helps add carbon building blocks to molecules, regulates gene activity, and supports gluconeogenesis, the production of blood glucose.

Source Code:

• Egg yolks; beef liver; salmon; pork; sunflower seeds; sweet potato; almonds; spinach and other leafy greens; whole grains; legumes; cauliflower; cheese (modest amounts vary by type).

Vitamin B9 (Folate)

Vitamin B9 supplies the carbon building blocks needed to help vitamin B12 make DNA, myelin, and certain neurotransmitters including serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. Cells can’t multiply without DNA, so folate requirements are much higher in times of rapid growth and development (such as pregnancy), and in parts of the body that replenish cells frequently, such as the bone marrow where red blood cells are produced. This is why folate deficiency can cause anemia (low red blood cell count) and neural tube defects such as spina bifida.

Flour and cereal fortification programs in many countries have helped prevent deficiencies, but these use synthetic folic acid rather than the natural folate found in foods. Best animal food source is liver; good plant sources include spinach, asparagus, and avocado.

Source Code:

• Liver (beef, lamb, poultry); edamame and mature soybeans; lentils, black beans, kidney beans, chickpeas; asparagus, Brussels sprouts, broccoli; spinach, romaine, mustard greens; avocado; citrus (orange), strawberries; beets; sunflower seeds; peanuts; wheat germ; quinoa and whole wheat when part of a mixed diet (concentrations vary with processing).

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Whereas most B vitamins participate in dozens to hundreds of metabolic reactions, B12 serves only two enzymes, so we need very little B12 and it can take years to deplete our reserves. The first enzyme helps vitamin B9 (folate) move carbon building blocks between molecules to make neurotransmitters and DNA (which is why B12 deficiency, like folate deficiency, can cause anemia), and the other enzyme is used to build myelin.

Vitamin B12 deficiency is not uncommon even in affluent countries, partly because so many medications and health conditions can interfere with B12 absorption, and partly because diets low in animal foods are becoming more prevalent. B12 deficiency can lead to a variety of psychiatric symptoms, including depression, psychosis, memory problems, and personality changes.

B12 is only found in animal foods; good sources include shellfish, meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and low-fat dairy products.

Source Code:

• Very high (examples): clams; mussels; oysters; liver (beef, lamb, veal); sardines and other small fatty fish; crab and other shellfish.
• Commonly useful sources: salmon, trout, tuna; beef and lamb; poultry; eggs (especially whole eggs); milk, yogurt, and cheese (content varies). Note: reliable plant-only B12 generally requires intentional microbial sources (e.g., certain fermented foods or fortified foods), not ordinary unwashed produce alone.

Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid)

Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) is a coenzyme required to build collagen (a component of the blood-brain barrier), and helps regulate the production of myelin, which insulates brain circuits.

Source Code:

• Citrus (oranges, grapefruit, lemon, lime); kiwifruit; strawberries, raspberries; papaya; guava; bell peppers (especially red); broccoli; Brussels sprouts; cauliflower; tomatoes; potatoes (white and sweet); cantaloupe; cabbage; kohlrabi; fresh herbs like parsley.

Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)

Strictly speaking, vitamin D3 is not essential in the diet because your skin can produce it if exposed to enough sunlight. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble hormone that influences brain development, calcium balance, antioxidant defenses, and neuroplasticity—the creation of new neuron networks in response to new experiences, which is key to learning and memory. Vitamin D deficiency is very common, particularly in people with insulin resistance, and deficiency during pregnancy increases risk for developmental and neuropsychiatric complications in offspring.

Source Code:

• D3 in whole foods (typically modest unless eaten often): fatty fish and fish roe (salmon, mackerel, herring, sardines, tuna); beef liver; egg yolks; pork (small contributions).
• UV-exposed mushrooms can provide vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol), not D3, but still contribute to vitamin D status depending on exposure and species.
• Primary non-food source for many people: sensible sunlight exposure enabling cutaneous synthesis of D3.

Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)

Vitamin E helps protect unsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs and PUFAs) from oxidative damage, helps maintain the shape of cell membranes, and regulates genes involved in protecting cell membranes.

Source Code:

• Wheat germ; sunflower seeds and almonds; hazelnuts; peanuts; avocado; spinach; Swiss chard; beet greens; broccoli; mango; kiwi; olives; whole grains (varies); vegetable oils are concentrated sources in modern diets but are not “whole foods” in the strict sense.

Vitamin K1

Vitamin K1 helps add carbon groups to clotting proteins, allowing them to bind calcium and initiate the “coagulation cascade” to prevent uncontrolled bleeding.

Source Code:

• Dark leafy greens (kale, spinach, collards, mustard greens, turnip greens, Swiss chard); broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage; parsley; asparagus; prunes; soybean and canola oils as used in food prep (concentrated).

Vitamin K2

Vitamin K2 is a much-overlooked fat-soluble hormone that activates proteins involved in brain cell growth and survival and participates in the production of vital membrane fats (sphingolipids), including those needed to make myelin. Several different forms of K2 exist, but 98 percent of the K2 in the human brain exists in a form called MK-4. Best dietary sources are liver and egg yolks.

Source Code:

• MK-4–rich patterns: liver (chicken, goose, beef); egg yolks; butter and full-fat dairy from pasture-raised/forage-fed animals (variable with feeding).
• Longer-chain menaquinones (e.g., MK-7): natto (fermented soy); certain aged cheeses; some fermented dairy and animal products (microbial K2 varies).

Calcium

Like a scout, calcium carries high-priority messages about energy demands, neurotransmitter supply, and cell health from the outer reaches of the neuron to deep inside the mitochondria and nucleus (the cell’s command center), so they can rapidly adapt to changing circumstances. Glutamate and GABA receptors use calcium, and calcium signaling is critical for learning and memory (neuroplasticity), neurotransmitter release, and even cell survival. If the cell is in dire straits due to viral infection, lack of oxygen, or other serious threats, large amounts of calcium rush in, initiating the cell’s suicide program (apoptosis).

Source Code:

• Dairy (milk, yogurt, kefir), cheese; canned sardines and salmon with bones; anchovies; tofu set with calcium salts; sesame seeds and tahini; almonds; white beans and other legumes; leafy greens (collard, kale, bok choy—bioavailability varies with oxalate); figs; blackstrap molasses (used sparingly); some mineral waters (label-dependent).

Chloride

Chloride is the dominant negatively charged ion in the brain. It helps regulate fluid balance and cell volume and cooperates with sodium to maintain neurons’ readiness to fire.

Source Code:

• Chloride is supplied mainly as salt (sodium chloride) in real-world diets; whole-food contributors include seaweed, celery, tomatoes, olives, beets, shellfish, rye, and many preserved or brined whole foods where salt is intrinsic to preparation.

Choline

The vast majority of choline is used to make phosphatidylcholine, an essential component of cell membranes. Choline is also used to build myelin, DNA molecules, and the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Choline was only recognized as an essential nutrient in 1998, so little is known about how deficiency affects mental health, but early studies suggest choline deficiency may affect attention and memory, perhaps because acetylcholine is so important to these brain functions. Studies find that most people in the United States do not consume adequate choline; best sources are red meat, liver, eggs, and fish roe.

Source Code:

• Egg yolks; beef, chicken, and cod liver; fish roe; muscle meats (beef, pork, chicken); wheat germ (for those who include grains); soybeans and roasted soy nuts; shiitake mushrooms; lima beans and other legumes; Brussels sprouts; long-simmered meat or poultry broth (connective tissue releases phospholipids).

Copper

The electron transport chain relies on copper to pull electrons through one of its large enzyme complexes (cytochrome c oxidase) as it works to make ATP. The enzyme that transforms dopamine into norepinephrine depends on copper as well.

Source Code:

• Liver (beef, calf, lamb); oysters and other shellfish; crab and lobster; shiitake mushrooms; dark chocolate/cacao (whole bean preparations); cashews, almonds, sesame; sunflower seeds; chickpeas; potatoes (with skin); whole grains and wheat germ.

Iodine

Iodine is an integral part of thyroid hormone, which is not only a major orchestrator of brain development in early life but also supports healthy brain metabolism throughout the lifespan. Iodine deficiency causes hypothyroidism (low thyroid hormone activity); when this occurs during pregnancy, it can lead to irreversible cognitive deficits in the developing baby. Iodine deficiency is widespread, affecting up to two billion people, including in the United States and Europe, and is a leading cause of preventable intellectual disabilities. In adults, hypothyroidism can cause symptoms of depression such as apathy and fatigue, and can even cause reversible dementia, likely due in part to sluggish brain glucose metabolism. Best food sources are fish, shrimp, seaweed, and iodized salt.

Source Code:

• Rich marine patterns: seaweed (kelp, nori, kombu—potency varies widely, excess possible); cod, haddock, pollock, tuna; shrimp, scallops; milk and yogurt (iodine varies with farm practices and season); eggs; iodized salt as a practical public-health vehicle where seafood intake is low; some coastal soils and produce (variable).

Iron

When we think of iron, we think of blood, but this mineral’s responsibilities extend far beyond carrying oxygen to the brain in red blood cells. Iron is gifted with the ability to exist in two different charged states, so it can give and receive electrons easily. This special talent makes it indispensable to the electron transport chain and many other pathways, including those used to construct DNA, myelin, and the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. Iron deficiency is the most common nutrient deficiency in the world, affecting more than 25 percent of the world’s population, most of whom are pregnant women and very young children. Since iron is needed to build DNA and myelin, iron deficiency during pregnancy can have irreversible effects on intelligence, memory, and attention, and can increase risk for autism. Best dietary sources are red meat, liver, mussels, and oysters.

Source Code:

• Heme iron (generally well absorbed): liver; beef and lamb; dark poultry meat; sardines; oysters, clams, mussels; venison and other game.
• Non-heme iron (absorption improved with vitamin C and careful food pairing): lentils, chickpeas, white beans; tofu and tempeh; spinach and Swiss chard; pumpkin seeds; quinoa; blackstrap molasses (sparing use).

Magnesium

Magnesium’s compact size and strong positive charge give it magnetic properties useful in hundreds of chemical reactions, helping to generate energy, build proteins, and stabilize genes. Magnesium exists in balance with calcium and zinc, which keeps their destructive influences in check. One of magnesium’s most intriguing tasks is to sit stubbornly inside glutamate receptors (NMDA receptors, to be exact), plugging them up and preventing positive ions from entering the cell. Only when a strong electrical signal comes along will magnesium pop out like a champagne cork and allow those ions to pour in so the neuron can fire. NMDA receptors are particularly important for learning, memory, and healthy circadian rhythm (sleep-wake patterns).

Source Code:

• Pumpkin, chia, and flax seeds; almonds and cashews; peanuts; spinach and Swiss chard; black beans, edamame, lima beans; quinoa; brown rice and whole wheat; avocado; yogurt and milk; banana; dark chocolate (cacao solids); mackerel and halibut (examples of fish contributing).

Manganese

The antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase, which shields mitochondria from free-radical damage, contains manganese. The multipurpose enzyme glutamine synthetase, which is used to manufacture glutamine, glutamate, and GABA, as well as to detoxify glutamate and ammonia in the brain, also requires manganese.

Source Code:

• Whole grains (oat, brown rice, bulgur); mussels and clams; hazelnuts, pecans; chickpeas and soy; spinach and beet greens; black tea (beverage from leaf); pineapple; sweet potato.

Molybdenum

Only four enzymes in the body require molybdenum. These enzymes help prevent DNA mutations and support healthy uric acid levels (which protects the brain against oxidative stress).

Source Code:

• Legumes (lentils, black beans, split peas); whole grains (especially oats); peanuts and other nuts; leafy vegetables; potatoes (with skin); tomatoes; seeds (sunflower, sesame); liver (modest).

Phosphorus

Phosphorus is an essential component of cell membranes, DNA and RNA, ATP molecules (the P stands for phosphate), and bone. It also participates in multiple chemical reactions—including electron transfer in the electron transport chain—and helps regulate the pH of the blood.

Source Code:

• Dairy (milk, cheese, yogurt); eggs; fish and shellfish; poultry; pork and beef muscle; lentils, chickpeas, soybeans; pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds; quinoa; whole wheat, oatmeal; potatoes; tree nuts (almonds, cashews, walnuts—content varies).

Potassium

Potassium is the dominant positively charged ion inside neurons, with concentrations maintained at roughly thirty times higher inside than outside to help maintain neurons’ readiness to fire. The enzyme that releases energy from ATP also requires potassium.

Source Code:

• White and sweet potatoes with skin; beet greens, spinach, Swiss chard; tomato products (paste, puree—whole-tomato based); oranges, orange juice (whole-fruit patterns preferred), bananas, cantaloupe, kiwi, apricots (dried unsweetened in moderation); avocado; white beans, lentils, soybeans; yogurt and milk; salmon, halibut, tuna; coconut water (natural).

Selenium

Several antioxidant enzymes contain selenium, including glutathione peroxidase, which helps protect the brain against stress, including oxidative stress.

Source Code:

• Brazil nuts (very high—portion control matters); seafood (tuna, halibut, sardines, oysters); organ meats; pork, beef, turkey, chicken; sunflower seeds; shiitake and crimini mushrooms; brown rice and whole wheat; eggs; dairy milk and yogurt.

Sodium

Sodium is the dominant positively charged ion outside neurons, with concentrations maintained at roughly ten times higher outside than inside to help maintain neurons’ readiness to fire.

Source Code:

• Sodium occurs widely as sodium chloride and natural sodium in whole foods: celery, beets, carrots; milk and yogurt; shellfish; anchovies; pickles and fermented vegetables (salt-mediated); tomato juice; many cheeses and cured whole-meat preparations (traditional preservation).

Sulfur

Sulfur is an essential component of insulin and glutathione (one of the most important antioxidants in the brain). It is also required to build two amino acids (cysteine and methionine) and helps guide protein folding and numerous metabolic pathways.

Source Code:

• Sulfur mainly arrives as protein-bound amino acids and organosulfur compounds: meats, poultry, fish, eggs; milk, yogurt, cheese; legumes (especially mature soy); alliums (onion, garlic, leek, shallot); crucifers (broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, kale); mustard family plants.

Zinc

Zinc allows certain proteins to fold into their correct shapes and assists certain enzymes in their catalytic duties. Zinc is required for healthy immune system function and neurotransmitter activity. One of zinc’s unique responsibilities is to burst out of tiny storage compartments into the synapse alongside glutamate (a stimulating neurotransmitter) to buffer its signal. Zinc also behaves as a natural dopamine reuptake inhibitor, prolonging dopamine signaling in the synapse. Zinc ripens young BDNF (brain-derived growth factor) molecules to maturity so they may fertilize developing neurons, supporting the process of neuroplasticity. Zinc is also central to the process of autophagy; when mitochondria or other critical cell components are damaged beyond repair and need to be destroyed, zinc helps calcium flip the kill switch, partly by intentionally generating oxygen free radicals to attack them from within and finish them off.

Source Code:

• Oysters (very high); crab, lobster; beef and lamb; pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds; cashews, almonds; chickpeas, lentils, black beans; yogurt, cheese; oats, quinoa; pork and dark poultry meat; eggs.